C

Caesarean Section: An operation performed to deliver a baby through the mother's abdominal wall

Calcification: The normal formation of bones from calcium phosphate or the abnormal deposits of calcium salts in tissue

Callus: Thickening of the skin due to continious Friction

Candida Infection: (Vaginal Thrush / Fungus / Monilia): Vaginal Thrush is inflammation of the vagina caused by the Candida Fungus.Thrush is a very common,not to mention miserable problem.Three-quaters of all women will get thrush at some stage of their lives.Some suffer one attack,many get it several times a year.Thrush is not life-threatening but ,it can cause a lot of distress & discomfort.Vaginal Thrush is not necessarily a sexual transmitted disease,it results from an imbalance of bacteria and yeast in the vagina.The imbalance can allow one type of yeast,Candida Albicans,to breed faster than usual and this can cause thrush.The imbalance that can lead to thrush can be caused by many things,such as hormonal changes experienced during menstruation in pregnancy and at the menopause.Other common triggers are antibiotics,poorly-controlled diabetes,bubble baths & disinfectants & in the bath and vaginal deoderands.Being a thrush sufferer does not mean you are dirty - in fact being over-zealous with doucing can upset the natural balance in the vagina and start an attack of thrush.Men can get thrush as well.Men very often re-infect their partners because usually only women seek medical treatment

Symptoms: Women - Thick,whitish cheesy smelling discharge.Itching and or soreness in and around the entrance of the vagina.Swelling of the labia,Stinging when urinating.Pain during sexual intercourse Men-Irritation,burning or itching under the foreskin or on the tip of the penis.Redness or red patches under the foreskin or on the tip of the penis.A thick cheesy discharge under the foreskin.Difficulty in pulling back the foreskin.Slight discharge from penis.Discomfort when urinating

* It is important to know that the symptoms listed are experienced by some - but not all sufferers.They can also be a sign of another type of infection e.g cystitits of which pain on passing urine is a common symptom*

Treatment for Thrush: If you have any of these symptoms,see your GP to confirm and that you have a thrush (candida) infection.If this is your first bout of thrush,you should visit your doctor to confirm that thrush is the problem.He/she may take samples from the vagina to check for infection.If you are getting re-current attacks of thrush,your doctor may ask about your sex life to find out whether your partner may be reinfecting you.If you have had thrush before,had a diagnosis from a doctor and recognize the symptoms,you mind find it easier and more convenient to use an over-the-counter remedy.Treatment can by by insertion of a pessary or cream into the vagina,but oral treatments have been available for a long time and this form of treatment is preferred by most women.Home remedies such as plain live yoghurt applied to the vagina are not proven cures for thrush.If any treatment causes soreness,stop using it immediately

How to avoid Thrush Infection: Women should remember to wash & wipe the genital area from front to back. All fungus thrive in warm,moist conditions - so keep the infected area clean & dry - avoid wearing thights,underwear not made of cotton,leggings,lycra shorts and tight jeans or trousers.If possible,don't scratch -because the fungus can spread by hand.Any constant scratching can cause thickening of the skin,and proneness to infection.Use sanitary pads rather than tampons during a period.Avoid perfumed soaps,genital sprays and deoderands and any other irritants such as disinfectants.Avoid sexual intercourse until infection is treated and totally cleared.Men - Although any man can carry thrush,all uncircumcized men should clean under their foreskin of the penis as part of their daily routine

Carcinogen: A substance that causes or promotes Cancer

Cardiac Arrest: A sudden failure of the Heart to pump blood, which is often fatal.The most common cause is a Heart Attack - but excessive loss of blood, hypothermia,drug overdose and shock can also result in Cardiac Arrest. A person wiht Cardiac Arrest collpses suddwenly, with loss of consciousness,absence of pulse an no breathing.Cardiac Arrest is more common in males and more comon with increasing age

Cardiac Pacemaker: Cardiac Pacemakers stimulate the Heart to maintain a regular Heartbeat.Some Pacemakers act continually, others send an impulse only when the Heart Rate falls too low.A Pacemaker is inserted just under the skin and stitched into position in the chest wall, just below the right shoulders.This is usually done under local anaesthesia.Two wires from the Pacemaker are passed into the larger vein above the heart-superior vena cava).One wire is guided into the right atrium and the other into the right ventricle.The latest Pacemakers have batteries that last 8-10years and are not affected by interference from radar and microwaves

*also see Arrhythmias*

Cardiomyopathy: A group of disorders of the Heart Muscles

Carpals: Wrist Bones

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Condition in which one of the nerves leading from the wrist to the hand, is compressed as it passes through carpal Tunnel - a space in the wrist through which tendons that flex the fingers also pass

Cataplexy: Sudden collapse of posture provoked by excitement

Cataract: A Painless misting of the lense of the Eye

Catarrh: Discharge of an excess of Mucus, usually from the Nasal sinuses, Air passages in the nose and throat

Causalgia: Intense continuing burning pain (often in a limb) usually afer an injury, because of damage to a nerve

Cauterise: To destroy diseaced or damaged tissue by applying to it - extreme heat or cold, intense light of a lazer beam or a corrosive substance.Warts and other skin growths are often treated in this way

Cellulitis: Spreading inflammation of the skin and tissues

Cerebral: Relating to the structure and workings of the Brain

Cerebral Palsy: Is the name given to disorders of the Brain that occur early in life and result in a lack of full control of Physical movement.In some children the damage occurs in Pregnancy and in others, during a difficult labour, when the baby may suffer from a lack of oxygen

Cerebral Palsy: Is the name given to disorders / damage of the Brain that occur early in life and result in a lack of full control of Physical movement.In some children the damage occurs in pregnancy and in a few others,during a difficult labour, when the baby may suffer from a lack of oxygen.However it is usually not possible to determine theexact cause of cerebral palsy.It may result if a premature baby has severe breathing problems,with bleeding in the brain a lack of oxygen both contributing to thecondition.Non-congenital causes include serious head injury and meningitis

Symptoms:1. The more sophisticated voluntary control centres of the brain do not function in the first months of life, therefore cerebral palsy may not be apparent at birth 2. After a few months it 2. may show itself if the child is slow to sit up,is 3. generally unsteady or cannot grasp and hold things.4. Cerebral palsy may affect only one side e.g the right arm and leg, 5. both legs with the arms hardly affected at all, 6. or all 4 limbs and the trunk.7. If the limbs tend to be stiff and fixed in certain postures the child is techinically termed 'spastic'.8. If he is prone to frequent purposeless writhing movements he is said to be 'athetoid'.9. Cerebral palsy is not a progressive disease that gets steadily worse.10. And it is quite common for children with cerebral palsy to have normal intelligence and normal capabilities

Treatment: Consists of trying to develop the childs physical,mental and social capabilities to the full.Therefore it is important that the child is fully assessed by a specialist and a physiotherapist so that he can be given treatment at an early age.Stretching exercise will prevent fixed deformity of the limbs. Orthopaedic appliances such as calipers and is some cases surgery,can improve mobility,and treatment such as speech therapy can compensate for the physical disability.Where there is no mental handicap,the outlook is extremely good.Children adjust quite well so sereve lack of motor function as long as their intellectual capacity is good and they can make themselves understood.The reaction of the family is of GREAT IMPOTRANCE - parents must guard against feeling sorry for the child.If there are other children in the family - the child mus be treated as far as possible in the same way as they are,although this may be hard for parents.As with all disabled children the EMPHASIS should be on what the child can do rather on what he cannot do

Cervical Erosion: An alteration in the outer covering of the Cervix - the neck of the Uterus

Cervix: In females the Entrance to the Uterus.The cervix is small & cylindrical and several centimetres in length and forms the lower part and neck of the uterus.The cervix dips down into the vagina.Running through the centre of the cervix is a canal through which sperm pass from the vagina into the uterus on their way to fertilize an egg and through which blood passes during menstruation

Chapping: Chaps are small Cracks in the Skin caused by the drying out of the skin, due to exposure to cold air or to hot dry air.Can be painful if they are deep

Chloasma: Also called the mask of pregnancy.This is a special form of pigmentation that causes brown patches to appear on the bridge of the nose,cheeks and neck.The only way to handle Chloasma is to camouflage it with a blemish stick or the coverup cosmetics that are used for birthmarks.Never try to bleach out the pigment. The patches will begin to fade within 3 months of childbirth.In black women,patches of paler skin develop on their faces and necks.These will probably disappear after delivery and can be camouflaged during pregnancy

Chronic Pelvic Pain: Chronic pelvic pain is long-term pain in the lower abdomen or pelvis.The pain must have lasted for at least 6months and isn't linked to menstruation or sexual intercourse.About 1 in 6 women has chronic pelvic pain. Most GP's do refer women with undiagnosed chronic pelvic pain to a gynaecologist,but even so,women often feel dismissed and find that their symptoms are not taken seriously.It is important for every women to insist on investigation and treatment because the alternative may be the inability to have children some time in the future

Causes: Several conditions may give rise to the condition including Endometriosis,Irritable bowel syndrome,Pelvic inflammatory disease and Musculoskeletal damage.Women are often aware that stress increases their pain, and some researchers have shown that deep-rooted psychological trauma, such as sexual abuse, may reveal itself as pelvic pain.Sometimes several of these factors may be present at the same time, making investigation and diagnosis of chronic pelvic pain quite difficult

Treatment of Chronic Pelvic Pain: You may need a specialist to sort out the cause,so ask for a referral to a gynaecologist early.Don't delay

Laparoscopy - Your doctor will probably suggest an investigation called diagnostic laparoscopy.It can be doen as a day case under a general anaesthitic,using a thin viewing instrument inserted through as small incision just below your navel.This allows the gine to see your pelvic organs directly.To see the pelvic organs clearly,carbon dioxide gas is pumped into the abdominal cavity so that the abdominal wall is lifted out of the way.It may take you a week to recover fully.Relatively minor complications - such as nausea and pain,occur after about 3 in 100 laparoscopies.More serious complications are rare but bowel perforation or blood vessel damage,requiring futher surgery and a long hospital stay occur after about 1 in 500 laparoscopies

Ultrasound - Adhesions scar tissue and endometriosis don't show up clearly on an ultrasound scan,so ultrasound isn't much use in investigating pelvic pain unless an ovarian cyst is suspected

MRI - Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): can help identify endometriosis.The purpose of the laparoscopy is to look for endometriosis and adhesions resulting from pelvic infection, but in oer 50% of cases no cause for pain is found.Even when adhesions or endometriosis are detected,gynaecologists disagree aboutwhether either of these conditions is really the cause of the pain

Treatment for Endometriosis: Depend on the diagnosis.Endometriosis can be removed surgically, or treated by suppressing the ovaries using drugs such as the combined oral contraceptive or a group of drugs called GnRH analogues.However, endometriosis is a recurrent disease and some women eventually choose Hysterectomy with removal of their ovaries.This relieves the symptoms but does not cure the endometriosis.Surgical division of adhesions works for some - but not all women.Quite often the adhesions simply grow back again in time.IBS often responds well to dietary changes or antispasmodic drugs and bulking agents.Musculoskeletal pain is probably best treated with painkilling drugs,particularly non-sterioidal inflammatory drugs (NSAID's),manipulation and a graded exercise programme from a physiotherapist.If psychological factors pay a part, they need to be recognized and sympathetically addressed alongside any other treatment.Durgs to Combat Pain - For some women, no clear diagnosis is reached.Nonetheless, much can be done to relieve symptoms.The most effective painkillers are NSAID's such as iboprofen.They may be used in combination with other types of painkillers such as paracetamol or dihydrocodeine.Drugs such as amitriptyline (an antidepressant) or carbamazepine (an anticonvulsant) can be used for chronic pelvic pain.They are aslo effective in conditions such as acute low back pain.This is because they have an effect on pain in addition to their other effects.Some women find pain management with careful pacing of activities and fitness training, can help them to live with chronic pelvic pain.And many derive great comfort and support from self-help-groups.In many women the pain resolves on its own

(IBS) Irritable Bowel Syndrome: can be detected reliably using a checklist of symptoms called the Rome Criteria.This is a set of symptoms that includes pain relieve by defecation,bloating and a change in bowel habit associated with pain.Musculoskeletal Causes of Pain - If the pain is worse on moving and bending, musculoskeletal causes of pain, such as a trapped nerve,may be the cause.A shilled physiotherapist,chiropractor or osteopath can offer the best help if this is the case.Your doctor may offer you an appointment with a psychologist too.If your gynae fails to pinpoint the cause of your pain, it is possible that it may not be of gynaecological origin.Unfortunately some gynae's are not always well trained to detect non-gynaecological causes of pelvic pain.So if your gynae cannot fine the cause of the pain,seek referral to a gastroenterologist

Ciliary Body: Muscles which thickens and narrow the lins according to the distance of the object viewed

Cervical Cancer (& pre-cancer): Cancer of the cervix is the second most common female cancer breast cancer is the most common) ,particularly among young women.Untreated it may spread to most of the organs in the pelvis.The chances of a cure for cervial cancer depend very mcuh on what stage the cancer has reached when first detected.Cervical cancer has a pre--cancerous stage - often called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) - during which time abnormal cells grow but are not cancerous.As this pre-cancerous stage may last for several years, any woman who has regular pap-smear tests - will be identified early enough for the abnormal cells to be totally removed by simply taking out the tissue from the cervix long befoare there is any threat to cancer.Despite the fact that pre-cancerous changes can be detedted by regular smear tests and treated.As this condition has no early warning symptoms it can only be detected by routine cervical smear screening

Stages of Cervical Pre-Cancer CIN 1 - The mildest stage CIN 11 - more severe changes CIN 111 - The most severe stage

Stages of Cervical Cancer: Stage 1 - cancer confined to the cervix Stage 2 - cancer extends beyond the cervix to involve the top of the vagina and / or tissue immediately surrounding the cervix Stage 3 - cancer extends to the lower part of the vagina and / or the side wall of the pelvis. Stage 4 - cancer extends beyond the pelvis and / or involves the bladder & recturm

Symptoms: In its early pre-cancerous stages (CIN II - CIN II) - there are no symptoms.By Stage 1 or 2 - intermenstrual bleeding and spotting after intercourse can show up as a warning sigh that must always be investigated.An offensive vaginal discharge may be a symptom of cervical cancer and needs medical assessment

Causes: While the exact cause of cervical cancer is not known, certain risk factors have been identified.These include infection with certain types of virusses e.g (HPV) Human Papilloma Virus which is linked to about 95% of all cases of cervical cancer.Other risk factors include having multiple sexual partners,smoking,long-term use of the contraceptive pill, early pregnancy and many pregnancies.The biggest risk factor for cervical cancer is non-attendance for cervical screening

Treatments: All stage of CIN should be treated although some doctors adopt a 'wait and see approach' involving repeat smear tests for early CIN. Treatment for CIN involves performing a Colposcopy - This is a simple non-invasive prodecure when the cervix is viewed with a special microscope.It can be used as a treatment as well as a diagnostic tool following an abnormal smear test.It requires no anaesthetic and can be done in the gine's surgery or at the outpatient's clinic. The colposcope is a special kind of microscope, and placed at the entrance of the vagina.The doctor examines the tissue to identify the precise area of abnormal cells - (a pap-smear test does not pinpoint the exact area).The doctor will then remove the speculum slowly so that he can observe and inspect the vaginal walls.Abnormal cells inside the cervical canal - can't be detected with a coloposcope.If these are suspected, a cone biopsy in which a cone of cervical tissue is removed - will be recommended.Areas confirmed as abnormal by biopsy are treated by electrocoagulation or laser (both use heat ato destroy tissue) by cryosurgery (which uses cold to destroy tissue) or maybe removed by diathermy loop excision (DLE) Treatment may be carried out at the same time as colposcopy if the abnormal area is small and well-defined.If a woman is pregnant, treatment is usually delayed

Tissue Test: Some disorders change the number of different types of cell within an organ or make individual cells abnormal.Tissue tests can show up these changes.In a tissue test, a small sample of a particular tissue is removed and examined under a microscope.One of the most frequently performed tissue tests is the cervical or Pap smear.In which a sample of a tissue is taken from the cervix to look for precancerous changes in the cells.Regular Pap smears.If you remember regular appointments for smear tests, any cancer will be caught at a time when chances of a cure are high.Even if cancerous cells are found,try to take an interest in the disease and co-operate with your medical advisers as much as possible to fight it.Cancer cures do depend to a certain extent on your determination to beat the disease and co-operate with your medical advisers as much as possible to fight it.Cancer cures do depend to a certain extent on your determination to beat the disease

Biopsy: The procedure in which a sample of tissue is taken specially for testing is known as a biopsy.Biopsy may be done to confirm a diagnosis or to investigate a suspicious lump or a tumour.e.g If Cirrhosis is suspected, a biopsy of liver tissue may be done and if characteristic changes are found, the diagnosis is confirmed.It is not known whether a tumour is malignant (cancerous) or benign (non-cancerous) - a biopsy can provide tissue that can be tested for cancerous changes.Futher test are sometimes needed if tissue tests do not provide a definitive diagnosis

Treatment for a full-blown cancer of the cervix: Ddepends on the stage that the disease has reached.Treatments may involve either surgery or radioatherapy or both. As a general rule radiotherapy is more often used for older women and sugery for younger,fitter persons irresective of the stage of the disease.Surgery involves removing all affected tissue and organs.A radical hysterectomy is most often performed.This involves removing the uterus,the cervix,the upper vagina and the surrounding tissues,including some lymph nodes.If the cancer involves the bladder or bowel,major surgery involving removal of the bladder or bowel as well as a hysterectomy,may be necessary.Nearly half of all cases of cervical cancer are treated with radiotherapy.The aim is to give a fatal dose of radiation to the centre of the cancer.Radiation also kills those parts of the growth that were invading other areas.However surgery alone with conservation of the ovaries is preferred for younger women because of the adverse effect of radiotherapy on bowel and sexual function

Outlook: You will be required to have regular checks over the next five years or so to make sure the cancer spread has been stopped.You'll almost certainly not be able to have any more children and if your ovaries are removed, you'll go through a premature menopause.You must be aware of this because you will need HRT from day one after the operation so do enquire of your surgeons

Cervical Spondylosis: A disorder that causes pain and restricted movement in the neck region of the spinal column

Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy uses powerful chemicals in the form of pills,injections or a drip into a vein to kill cancer cells.Chemotherapy drugs interrupt call growth so they end up killing large numbers of cells, both cancerous ones and healthy ones.Many 'normal' body cells - such as the bone marrow and the lining of the intestines and mouth) divide rapidly and are therefore vulnerable to cancer drugs,giving rise to many of the side effects of chemotherapy.Most chemotherapy is given as outpatient treatment,either as a short injection into a vein or as an intravenous drip over an hour or so.It rarely involves staying in hospital overnight

Cherry Spots: Bright red or purple (pimples) which appear on the chest an trunk in later years

Chickenpox: Common contagious childhood disease. Caused by the Virus Varicella Zoster - which also causes Shingels (Herpes Zoster).Chickenpox is an infection that causes a fever and widespread corps of blisters.In rare cases chickenpox virus may cause Encephalitis or be complicated by a condition known as Reye's Syndrome

The Chickenpox virus is transmitted in airborne droplets from the coughs and sneezes of infected people or by direct contact with the blisters.The illness is usually mild in chickenpox,but symptoms are more severe in young babies,older adolescents and adults.Chickenpox can also be more serious in people with reduced immunity,such as those with AIDS

Symptoms: The symptoms of Chickenpox appear 1-3 weeks after infection.In children,the illness often starts with a mild fever or headache,in adults - there may be more pronounced flu-like symptoms.As infection with the virus progresses,the following symptoms usually become apparent

1. Rash in the form of crops of tiny red spots that rapidly turn into itchy, fluid-filled blisters within 24 hours the blisters dry out,forming scabs,successive crops occur for 1-6 days.The rash may be be widespread or consist of only a few spots, and it can occur anywhere on the head or body.Sometimes discomfort during eating caused by spots in the mouth that have developed into ulcers.A person is contagious from about 2 days before the rash first appear until it fully crusts over in about 10-14 days.The most common complication of chickenpox is bacterial infection of the blisters due to scratching.Other complication include Pneumonia - which is more common in adults,and rarely,inflammation of the brain (encephalitis).Newborn babies and people with reduced immunity are at high risk of complications.Very rarely,if a woman gets chickenpox in early pregnancy, the infection may result in fetal abnormalities

Treatments: 1. Chickenpox can usually be diagnosed from the appearance of the rash 2. Children with mild infection do not need to see a doctor, and rest and simple measures to reduce fever are all that are needed for full recovery 3. Calamine lotion may help relieve itching 4. To prevent skin infections,keep fingernails short to avoid scratching 5. People at risk of servere attacks,such as babies,older adolescents,adults and people with reduced immunity,should see their doctor immediately 6. An anti-viral drug may be given to limit the effects of the infection,but it must be taken in the early stages of the illness in order to be effective 7. Children who are otherwise healthy usually recover within 10-24 days from the onset of the rash,but they may have permanent scars where the blisters have become infected with bacteria 8. Adolescents,adults and people with reduced immunity take longer to recover

Prevention: One attack of chickenpox gives life-long immunity to the disease.However the Varicella Zoster Virus remains dormant within nerve cells and may reactivate years later, causing Shingles

Chilblains: A reddish-blue discoloration of the Skin, accompanied by Itching and Swelling.The result of a Hypersensitivity to Cold.Usually affects the toes,fingers and back of legs

Chlamydia: This is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection and it is on the increase.Rates have been consistently higher in women than men,and particularly in those aged 16-24.Part of this increase is due to new diagnostic methods and publicity,which mean that more people are being screened and seeking care.All women & men with a disharge should therefore be tested for Chlamydia.Since this infection is often without symptoms,those who have frequent partners,should also be tested

Symptoms: Up to 70% of women and at least 25% of men infected with Chlamydia have no symptoms - so a substantial number of infections remain undiagnosed and untreated.Where there are symptoms,women may have disharge,pain when passing urine,heavy periods or bleeding between periods,low abdominal pain or abdominal pain during vaginal sex.Men may notice discharge from the penis and/or burning when passing urine.New methods of testing for Chlamydia are now available that will allow easier and more widespread detection and treatment

Contamination & Spreading Chlamydia is almost always transmitted through vaginal or anal sex and very occasionally through oral-genital contact.Occasionally a pregnant woman can pass the infection to her baby.In this case infection is usually limited to the eyes,but can rarely cause pneumonia

Infertility Time-Bomb: Often neglected by patients and doctors alike,Chlamydia infection may not be life-threatening but it can be life-ruining.It has come to be known as the fertility time-bomb,capable of lurking silently for years before causing irreparable damage.After infection with Chlamydia,the fine hairs can be destroy - that waft the fertilized eggs down the fallopian tubes to the uterus.This sets the scene for tubal or ectopic pregnancy.In the Britain,the ectopic pregnancy rate has quadrupled since the early 1960's, in parallel with Chlamydia infection.The damage can also set up tubal inflammation,swelling and complete blockage of the tubes,though why this develops in some women and not others is not known.Teenagers are more vulnerable to this bacterial attack,so threatening the infertility of future generations of mothers. Chlamydia infection in women has serious fall-out.Untreated infections persist for a long time and up to one-third of inadequately treated women may go on to develop pelvic inflammatory disease.Up to half of all cases of pelvic inflammatory disease,one-fifth may become infertile and one-tenth,will go on to have an ectopic pregnancy once they conceive

Carriers of Chlamydia: Because Chlamydia is virtually symptomless in men,they can carry the disease without knowing.Male carriers can reinfect women and keep a chronic low-grade infection simmering even after a woman has had antibiotics.This means that if Chlamydia is found in a woman,her partner(s) must be treated too

Chloasma: Melasma.Darkening of the skin of the face in some women during pregnancy

Choking: Is the body's way of Dislodging a foreign body - usually food or in children a plaything

Cholera: Acute infectious disease found in contaminated water.Serious epidemic in S.A. Caused by Vibrio Cholerae that is found in the faeces of patients and carriers

Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a fatty substance made in the liver from the saturated fats in food.Too much cholesterol in the blood can incease your risk of getting coronary heart disease.Cholesterol comes in two main forms.Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) which carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells in the body, including the arteries.And High-density lipoproteins (HDL) which return excess cholesterol to the liver. LDL's iare the body's natural energy.High LDL's are a serious risk factor for coronary heart disease, especially with a low HDL.HDL on the other hand are the good ones and high levels are extremely healthy.The best position to be in therfore - is to have a high HDL and a low LDL.A diet in high saturated fat - i.e animal fat, mainly from full-fat dairy products raises your LDL and lowers your HDL - the opposite of what you want.On the other hand by changing your saturated fats to unsaturated fat (oils) - you'll reverse this tendency.Cholesterol is only one risk for getting heart disease.If you have any other risk factors such as smoking,being overweight or high blood pressure, then these risk factors multiply your chances of having a heart attack.About 1 in 10 people has a high blood cholesterol as the result of a famillial condition called 'inherited hyperlipidaemia.If this condition is left untreated it can lead to coronary artery disease and heart attack at an exceptionally young age

Cholecystitis: Chronic inflammation of the gall-bladder wall,usully associated with gallstones blocking the flow of bile - a digestive fluid produced by the liver.Cholecystitis usually occurs when the outlet from the gallbladder becomes blocked by a gallstone.Bile becomes trapped in the gallbladder,causing inflammation of its walls.A bacterial infection may then develop in the stagnant bile.In rare cases,Cholecystitis occurs when there are no gallstones present.Anyone who has gallstones is at risk of developing Cholecystitis.Risk factors associated with gallstones include obesity,a high-fat diet and some blood disorders as Sickle-Cell Anemia

Symptoms: It can vary in severity. 1. They usually develop over a period of hours and include.2. Constant severe pain in the right side of the abdomen - just below the rib cage. 3. Pain in the right shoulder.4. Nausea & Vomiting. 5. Fever & chills. 6. Sometimes - Jaundice causing yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes may develop. 7. Symptoms often improve over a few days and disappear after about a week. 8. However in some cases symptoms become progressively worse and need urgent treatment. 9. Rarely,bacterial infection may cause the gallbladder to perforate. 10. This allows irritant bile to leak into the abdomen,resulting in Peritonitis,a serious condition in which there is inflammation of the membrane lining the wall of the abdomen. 11. Cholecystitis may also be accompanied by Acute Pancreatitis in which there is sudden and painful inflammation of the pancreas

Treatment: The doctor may suspect Cholecystitis from your symptoms and after a phsyical examination.If,so ultrasound scanning or ERCP will be done to confirm the diagnosis and to indicate the position of any gallstones.If your symptoms are mild, you may be treated in the hospital with intravenous fluids, painkillers and antibiotics.You may have a tube passed into your stomach in order to remove the contents by suction.This procedure stops digestive juices from entering the duodenum,which would cause the gallbaldder to contract.Although Cholecystitis often subsides after treatment with antibiotics surgery to remove the gallbladder is usually recommended to prevent the condition from recurring.Surgery is always necessary if complications such as perforation of the gallbladder arise

Prognosis: Removal of the gallbladder after an attack of Cholecystitits prevents recurrences.Absence of the gallbladder has no long-term ill effects on the digestive system

*also see Gallstones*

Crohn's Disease: This is a rare long-term inflammatory disease that can affect any part of the digestive tract,especially the ileum - part of the small intestine.Diarrhoea,pain,fever and loss of weight are common symptoms.The onset of Crohn's disease is most common between the ages of 15 and 30 and the problem sometimes runs in families,suggesting that there may be a genetic component.Smoking is a risk factor

Symptoms: The symptoms for Crohn's disease vary among individuals.The disorder usually recurs at intervals throughout life,typically waxing and waning.Episodes of the disease may be severe,lasting weeks or several months,before settling down to periods wherer there are mild symptoms or no symptoms at all.The symptoms include - diarrhoea,abdominal pain,fever,weight loss,a general feeling of malaise.If the colon is affected,symptoms also include - diarrhoea,often containing blood,bloody discharge from the anus.About 1 in 10 people also develops other disorders sthat are associated with Crohn's disease - including a form of arthritis known as ankylosing spondylitis,kidney stones, gallstones and a classical rash known as erythema nodosum

Treatment: Mild attacks may be treated with antidiarrhoeal drugs and painkillers.For an acute attack,your doctor may prescribe oral corticosterioids.As soon as symptoms subside,the dosage will be reduced to avoid the risk of side effects.If your symptoms are very severe, you may need hospital treatment with intravenous corticosteroids.To avoid the risk of side effects, the dosage will be reduced as soon as symptoms subside.In all cases, once the dosage of corticoseroids has been reduced,your doctor may recommend oral sulphasalazine or mesalamine to prevent recurrent attaks.An immunosuppressant drug,such as azathioprine, is an option.You may need dietary supplements, such as vitamins, to counteract malabsorption.During severe attacks,nutrients may have to be given intravenously

Complications: Crohn's disease sometimes leads to complications.Crohn's disease may include an anal abscess,which may develop into an anal fistual opeining in the skin.Intestinal obstruction caused by thickening of the intestinal walls is a fairly common complication of Crohn's disease.Damage to the small intestine may prevent the absorption of nutrients and thus lead to malabsroption with anaemia and vitamin deficiencies.Inflammation of the colon over a long period of time,may also be associated with an increased risk of developing colorectal cancer

Prognosis: Crohn's disease is a recurring disorder.Most affected people learn to live reasonably normal lives,but 7 in 10 people eventually need surgery.Complications and repeated surgery can occassionally reduce life expectancy.Crohn's disease may slightly increase the risk of colorectal cancer,and your doctor may advise regualr check-ups that include colonoscopy

Chromosomes: Microscopic strands which are present within the Nucleus of every Cell.They carry the genetic information needed to determine the characteristics of an individual.There are normally 46 chromosomes in each cell.Abnormal numbers or formations of chromosomes are found in sufferers of certain conditions such as Down's Syndrome

Chronic: A term describing a condition that has lasted, or is expected to last for some time, while not necessarily being life-threatening.Chronic conditions tend to get better or deteriorate slowly

Cilia: Minute hairs lining the surface or mucous membranes e.g the nose / lung.Their waving movement serves a cleaning purpose clearing dust particles, mucus and bacteria

Ciliary Body: Muscles which thickens and narrow the lins according to the distance of the object viewed

Circumcision: This is the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis - the shin covering th head of the penis(glans).The operation may be doen if the foreskin is too tight to be pulled back over the glans (Phimosis).Circumcision may also be carried out for religious reasons or less often now,for hygienic purposes.Bacteria can collect under the foreskin if not often pulled back and cleaned.In boys and men,circumcision is usually performed under general anaesthesia.However,in newborn boys it is more often done under local anaesthesia.In the operation the inner and outer layers of the foreskin are cut away and their edges are then stitched together.No dressing is needed while the wound heals.After circumcision - the head of the penis is exposed *also see treatment under Phimosis*

Cirrhosis of the Liver: This is a chronic disease often associated with the abuse of alcohol.Cirrhosis is irreversable scarring of the Liver.Occuring in the later stages of various liver disorders.In cirrhosis the normal liver tissues is destroyed and replaced by fibrous scar tissue.Long-term excessive alcohol consumption is a risk factor.Cirrhosis may be caused by several different disorders,including viral infections and excessive alcohol abuse.The liver damage is irreversible and prevents the liver from functioning properly.Some people with cirrhosis may feel well for years,desite having severe liver damage.However with time they may develop complications,such as liver failure and liver cancer. In developed countries,cirrhosis is the 3rd most common cause of death in people aged 45-65 after coronary artery disease and cancer.Cirrhosis is much more common in men than in women

Causes: Worldwide the most common cause is infection with a Hepatitis virus,particularly the hepatitis B & C viruses. (see under hepatitis).However in developed countries cirrhosis is most frequently caused by excessive alchohol consumption.Cirrhosis my also be caused by sclerosing cholangitis, a condition in which the bile ducts inside the liver becomes inflamed.The cause of this condition is not known although it can be associated with some inflammatory bowel disease,such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.Cirrhosis may develop as a result of a blockage of the bile ducts by gallsltones.Cirrhosis may follow bile duct surgery

Symptoms: Cirrhosis often produces no symptoms and is only detected during a routine examination for another condition.If there are symptoms they 1. include poor appetite and 2. weight loss,3. nausea,3. yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes - jaundice.In the long term life-threatening complications may arise.4. Cirrhosis can lead to high blood pressure in veins in the oesophags,which causes them to be fragile and to bleed easily.5. Malnutrition may also develop from being unable to absorb fats and certain vitamins.6. Eventually cirrhosis can lead to liver cancer or liver failure

Symptoms of liver failure include: a swollen,fluid-filled abdomen and visible spider-like blood vessels in the skin known as spider naevi.A failing liver may also result in abnormal bleeding and easy bruising.This occurs as a result of reduced production of essential blood clotting factors in the liver

Prognosis: In the long run life-threatening complications may arise.Cirrhosis can lead to high blood pressure in veins in the oesophagus,which causes them to be fragile and to bleed easily.Malnutrition may also develop from being unable to absorb fats and certain vitamins.Eventually,cirrhosis can lead to liver cancer or liver failure.The symptoms of liver failure include a swollen,fluid filled abdomen and visible spider-like blood vessels in the skin,known a spider naevi.A failing liver may also result in abdominal bleeding and easy bruising.This occurs as a result of reduced production of essential blood clotting factors in the liver

Treatment: If your doctor suspects that you have cirrhosis from your symptoms blood samples will be taken to assess liver functions and look for Hepatitis viruses.You may also have ultrasound scanning, computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assess the liver.To confirm the diagnosis, you may have to have a liver biopsy,in which small sample of tissue is removed from your liver for microscopic examination.Damage to the liver caused by Cirrhosis is always irreversible.However if the underlying cause can be treated further deterioration may be prevented

Claudication Intermittent: Cramp in the legs while walking

Claustrophobia: Abnormal fear of enclosed spaces

Clavicle: Collar bone.Long curved bone that joins the Shoulder joint at one end and joins the Breastbone at the other end

Claw Foot: Pes Cavus.Excessive arching of the foot

Cleft Palate / Hare Lip: Deformity of the lip and palate present at birth

Club Foot: Abnormallity of the Foot Joints in which the patient cannot stand with the sole of the foot flat on the ground

Cluster Headache: Severe Headache which tends to recur nightly for several weeks or months and then disappear for years

Coccydynia: Pain in the Coccyx (lowest section of the spine) or surrounding area

Cochlea: In Middle-ear. Picks up vibrations from the Ossicles and passes the signals to the Auditory Nerve

Coeliac Disease:Or Gluten sensitivity.The result of an Allergic reaction in the lining of the Small intestine, when it comes into contact with Gluten.Rare disease in which the patient's Intestine is unable to absorb essential nutrients from food

Cognitive Therapy: Is based on the idea that some psychological problems stem from inappropriate ways of thinking.It helps people to recognize and understand their current thought patterns and shows them ways to consciously charge the way they think.Cognitive therapy does not look into past events and is often used in conjunction with behaviour therapy

Cold Sores: Cold Sores are tiny blisters that form around the nostrils, lips and elsewhere on the face.The blisters break open and weep before they crust over and disappear.Cold sores caused by a viral Infection of which there are two types - Herpes Simplex type 1 - which causes most cases of facial cold sores, and type 2 ,which cause about 70-80% of cases of genital herpes. A rise in skin temperature - perhaps caused by a cold, or by going out in the sun- activates the virus.The first attack may take the form of painful mouth ulcers.Subsequently attacks take the form of painful mouth blisters.Most cold sores last about 0-14 days.Cold sores are not serious unless they occur near the eye,where they may rarely cause an ulcer to form on the front of the eyeball

Symptoms: Raised red area - usually around the nostrils and lips,which tingle and feels itchy.Tiny blisters then form on the spot.Weeping blisters - which then crust over

Treatment: 1. Once the blisters have formed,don't touch them 2. Surgical spirits dabbed on the cold sores will dry them up.It may sting 3. Petroleum jelly will keep them moist while the virus runs it course 4. Consult your doctor as soon as possible if the cold sores become redder and develop pusfilled centres as they may be infected with bacteria 5. Also consult your doctor a.s.a.p if a cold sore is near your EYE 7. Ask your doctor's advice if your suffer from recurrent cold sores 8. If the cold sores are infected, your doctor may prescribe and antibiotic ointment that lubricates the area and treats the infection 9. Your doctor may prescribe and anitviral cream to spread over the affected area regularly to contain the attack 10.He may also give your antiviral tablets if attacks are frequent 11. Make sure that you have a personal towel and face cloth 12. Don't kiss anyone.The virus are very contagious and can be transmitted this way 13. If you tend to develop cold sores after exposure to sunlight,smear a sunblock on your lips or nose when you go out in the sun

*also see under Herpes*

Colic: Spasmodic pain applied to a baby under four months of age.Cause unknown.Often worse at 3 months , but goes by 4 months

Colitis - Ulcerative: Chronic inflammation of the Large Bowl causing ulceration

Colour Blindness: Is another common condition, especially in boys and it too tends to run in families.True colour blindnessm where everything appearts grey, is rare.What most people refer to as colour blindness is in fact an inability to distinguish between reds and greens

Collar Bone: Clavicle.A long curved bone that joins the Shoulder joint at one end and joins the Breastbone at the other

Colorectal Cancer (Bowl cancer): This is the general term for cancerous tumours of the lining of the Colon or the Rectum.Cancer of the colon (bowel) occurs more often in women but cancer of the rectum is more common in men.Colorectal cancer is a disease of middle and late age.A high-fat,low fibre diet,alcohol abuse and obesity are risk factors.Taking regular exercise help to prevent colon cancer.Colorectal cancer is the second most common cause of cancer deaths in the West.It is also one of the few cancers that can be detected at an early stage by screening people though to be at risk.When it is detected early enough,the disease can often be successfully treated by surgery.Colorectal cancer is rare under age 40 and most cases occur in people over age 60.Cancer can occur anywhere in the colon or rectum - but about 3 in 5 tumours develop in the part of the colon nearest the rectum

Causes: In less affluent countries, where people traditionally live on a high-fibre diet consisting mainly of cereals and fruit and vegetables,Colorectall cancer is rare.However - a typical Western diet which tends to be high in meat and animal fats and low in firbe - seems to increase the risk of the disorder.A possible explanation is that dietary fibre shortens the time that it takes waste matter to pass through the intestines.As a result,potentially cancer-causing substances - carcinogens - in food are expelled from the body at a faster rate.Other lifestyle factors such as excessive consumption of alcohol,obesity and lack of exercise may also contribute to the risk of developing colorectal cancer.Inflammatory disorders affecting the large intstine, such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease,can also increase the risk of developing colorectal cancer if they are long-standing

Genetic: About 1 in 8 cases of Colorectal cancer is hereditary.Most of these cases are caused by inheritance of an abnormal gene.People who have this gene are at increased risk developing a form of cancer known as HEREDITARY NON-POLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER (HNPCC).Rarely Colorectal cancer may be caused by the inherited disorder FAMILIAL ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS (FAP) - in which polyps form inside the large intestine.In FAP,there is a 9 in 10 chance that some of the polyps will become cancerous over time.Another gene may cause a triad of cancers of breast,ovary and colon when it runs through family.All members of such a family should have regular screening for all three cancers.It is vital that people with a family history of Colorectal cancer should be screened from age 40.An annual faecal occult blood test is advised for people over age 50 who have a family history of the disease, in addition to sigmoidoscopy - a form of Colonoscopy,every 3-5 years

Symptoms: The symptoms vary depending on the site of the tumour.The include - changes in the frequency of bowel momements or in the general consistency of the faeces - any change over the age of 50 should be reported to your doctor.Abdominal pain.Blood in the faeces - always report this to your doctor. Rectal discomfort or a senstation of incomplete emptying of the rectum.Loss of appetite.The symptoms of colorectal cancer may be mistaken for the symptoms of a less serious disorder, such as haemorrhoids.If there is heavy loss of blood from the rectum - iron-deficiency anaemia may result.As the tumour grows bigger,it may eventually cause intestinal obstruction.You should consult your doctor without delay if you notice an obvious change in your bowel habits or blood in your faeces.Left untreated,Colorectal cancer will eventually spread via the bloodstream to the lymph nodes,liver and other organs in the body

Diagnosis: Colorectal cancer is often diagnosed during screening before symptoms have developed.If you do have symptoms,your doctor may first feel your abdomen to detect swelling.Rectal examination,in which a glvoed finger is inserted gently into the rectum, may also be done to see if a tumour can be felt.A stool sample is tested for the presence of occult blood.A blood sample may be tested for Anaemia.The rectum may be examined visualy with a viewing instrument inserted through the anus.Your doctor may also arrange for a colonoscopy, in which a flexible viewing instrument is used to examine the entire colon.A biopsy (removal of a small piece of tissue) may be taken for microscopic examination during the procedure.You may also have a contrast X-ray in which a barium enema is used to detect an abnormality of the recturm or colon.If a cancerous tumour is detected,you will probably need to have computerized tomography (CT) scanning to see if the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the abdomen or to the liver.The aim of all screening is to detect disease before symptoms appear.So it is and early warning system.There are several ways of screening for bowel cancer that are currently being investigated.Scientists are testing a technique to detect samll growths that can be removed before they develop into cancer

Treatment: May involve surgery and / or chemotherapy.Surgery is the primary treatment for Colorectal cancer.If the cancer has not spread beyond the wall of the bowel,no further therapy is neeeded and you will generally make a full recovery.Unfortunately,cancer is hard to control once it has spread.The search is always going on for more effective ways of treating advanced disease and preventing cancer from spreading in the first place.Chemotherapy - a new technique of giving the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) directly to the liver after surgery may improve survival in bowel cancer that has spread

Colostomy: A Procedure in which part of the colon (Large Intestines) is pulled out through a cut in the abdominal wall to make an artificial anal canal. A colostomy is performed following a colectomy (removal of part of the colon) In a colostomy,part of the colon opens onto the skin of the abdominal wall to form an artificial opening called a STOMA.Faeces are expelled through the stoma into a disposable bag.A temporary colostomy may be done if part of the colon has been removed,allowing the rejoining ends to heal without faeces passing through the site.A permanent colostomy is needed when the rectum and anus have been removed with part of the colon.In an ileostomy,the entire colon and rectum are removed and a stoma is created to allow the small intestine to expel faeces

Colposcopy: This is a simple non-invasive prodecure when the cervix is viewed with a special microscope.It can be used as a treatment as well as a diagnostic tool following an abnormal smear test.It requires no anaesthetic and can be done in the gine's surgery or at the outpatient's clinic. The colposcope is a special kind of microscope, and placed at the entrance of the vagina.The doctor examines the tissue to identify the precise area of abnormal cells - (a pap-smear test does not pinpoint the exact area).The doctor will then remove the speculum slowly so that he can observe and inspect the vaginal walls.Abnormal cells inside the cervical canal - can't be detected with a coloposcope.If these are suspected, a cone biopsy in which a cone of cervical tissue is removed - will be recommended.Areas confirmed as abnormal by biopsy are treated by electrocoagulation or laser (both use heat ato destroy tissue) by cryosurgery (which uses cold to destroy tissue) or maybe removed by diathermy loop excision (DLE) Treatment may be carried out at the same time as colposcopy if the abnormal area is small and well-defined.If a woman is pregnant, treatment is usually delayed

Common Cold: Viral infection resulting in runny nose and sore throat.Not serious, but complications such as Bronchitis or Pneumonia may arise

Comminuted Fractures: The bone is broken into small fragments which increases the likelihood of damage to the soft tissues surrounding the broken bone.These fractures are usually caused by severe direct forces *also see under fractures*

Compound Fracture: Is a fracture where the bone sticks though the skin and may damage the blood vessels and muscles

Compression Fracture: A compression fracture occurs if spongy bone,like that in the vertebrae if the spine, is crushed - this type of fractures is often due to osteoporosis *also see under fractures*

Compulsive Obsessional Behaviour: An uncommon and Extreme exaggeration of a trait of normal behaviour in which actions or thoughts are endlessly repeated for no reason

Congenital: A term applied to a disease or condition present at birth

Congenital Heart Disease: Structual abnormality of the Heart

Conjunctiva: Thin membrane covering the front of the inner sides of the eyelids

Conjuntivitis: Bacterial or Viral Infection or Injury to the Conjunctiva - membrane that covers the eyeball - and inner surface of the eyelids

Constipation: Constipation is a word that is used to describe the Consistency of stools and not the Regularity or Frequency of bowel movement

Contact Dermatitis: The name is used to describe an itchy,inflamed skin rash that develops when something in the outside world comes into contact with the skin.Occupational dermatitis is a type of contact dermatitis.Contact dermatitis may develop if an offending sustance is touched directly or something if there is contact with particles of the substance carried in the air.If all further contact with this substance is avoided the dermatitis should get better.There are 2 main types of contact Dermatitis Irritant and Allergic

Irritant contact Dermatitis: is a very common skin problem that affects many people at some stage of their life.It is caused by contact with substances that damage the outer layers of the skin and typically affects the hands.One of the most common situations giving rise to irritant contact dermatitis is repeated contact with mildly irritant substances such as water and detergents.Other irritant substances include solvents e.g petrol,cleaning chemicals,oils and metalworking fluids used in industry.The skin problem often starts as chapping,soreness and redness and if untreated leads to a stubborn dermatitis.Once damaged,the skin is no longer a barrier against the outside environment and can easily be irritated further.This sets up a vicious circel that can be difficult to break

Allergic contact Dermatitis: This is less common than irritant contact dermatitis and you are born with the tendency to get it.It happens because the body's immune system reacts against a specific substancer or 'allergen' making the skin hypersensitive.The tendency to allergic response or 'atopy' is genetic,and you and your relatives may have other atopic conditions such as eczema,asthma,hay fever and migraine.People are not born with this type of allergy,but develop it later,usually in adulthood.Allergic contact dermatitis usually affects only a minority of people who come into contact withe the allergen.What makes an allergy develop at a certain time is unknown,and why one person gets affected while others don't,is aslo unclear.The most common cause of Allergic contact dermatitis is women in nickel - which is found in metallic jewellery.Aboit 1 in 10 women has this type of allergy and typically develops itch,sore,red patches or the ear lobes after wearing earings.Other things that commonly cause Allergic contact Dermatitis include perfume,rubber additives,leather additives and preservative in creams and cosmetics.Allergies can also develop to medicated creams and ointments and sunscreens.A person can actually suffer from more than one type of Dermatitis.Someone with Atopic Eczema who works as a hairdresser could get skin irritations on their hands from frequent shampooing (irritant contact dermatitis)

Common causes of Allergic Contact Dermatitis: Nickel - found in cheap jewellery,studs on jeans,metal objects including coins.Fragrance - Perfumes,toiletries,cosmetics. Chromate - Leather items,wet cement.Preservatives - Cosmetics especially creams (cleansers & moisturizers).Rubber additives - Rubber gloves & shoes

Occupational Dermatitis: In some cases a person's dermatitis is caused primarily by substances to which they are exposed at work.These may be irritants or allergens depending on the nature of the job.Patch tests should be carried out if the work involves exposure by substances that can cause allergy

Preventing Futher Dermatitis: Minimize contact with all irritant substances at work or at home.Avoid skin contact with the substance you are allergic to.Take general skin care measures to keep the skin strong and healthy

Active Treatment: Treat the Dermatitis with frequent application of moisturizers and regular use of steroid creams or ointments once of twice a day.If the dermatitis has become additionally infected,a course of antibiotic cream may be necessary

Convulsion: Is a Fit or Seizure that occurs when the Brain reacts abnormally.Most common causes in children, may be a raised temperature that acccompanies a Viral infection such as Influenza.Other causes may be Meningitis, Encephalitis,Chemical abnormalities of the blood, such as a low level of glucose in Diabestes or Epilepsy

Copper Therapy: Traditionally worn in easing of Rheumatism pain

Core Needle Biopsy: Fine Needle Biopsy yields only a tiny sample of cells from bodily-tissue, so it's impossible to be specific about where they are coming from.A Core Needle Biopsy provides a sample of cells from the lump that can be analyzed to make this distinction.Under local anaesthetic, a special needle wiht a sheath is painlessly inserted into the lump in order to withdraw a fine core of tissue from it.The sheath is drawn back and some tissue from the lump falls into the notch.The sheath is closed, trapping a tiny core of tissue from the lump inside the notch and the needle is withdrawn.The skin is left virtually intact, although there may be a little bruising afterwards,there's hardly any discomfort

Corn: Thickening of the outer skin, most commonly on the toes and soles of the feet

Coronary Thrombosis: Most common cause of Hearth Attacks.Obstruction of artery supplying blood to the Heart

Cor Pulmonale: Heart failure which develops when a long-standing Lung disease has strained the heart and circulation

Cot Death: Sudden Infant Syndrome. Baby dies suddenly and unexpectedly while asleep

Counselling: Psychological Therapy: A counsellor is trained to listen while you talk through your personal problems,a counsellor can support you through a bad patch and help you see the overall picture. Counselling is gentle and supportive,relying on trust.The aim is to help your develop your own insights into what is gone wrong so you can approach the problem in a fresh way.That should mean you feel less like a victim of circumstances and have more control over your life.In the course of counselling you can reassess your coping skills - how you deal with problems,challenges,relationships or work - and learn new ways that would be more affective.It can also help to make you clearer and more direct when communicating with others,saying what your mean and asking for what you want,being assertive without being aggressive.Sort term counselling for a specific difficulty may only take a few weekly sessions while more complex deep-rooted problems will need longer,perhaps an hour every week for several months.Some family practices have a counsellor as a member of their primary care team.Community counselling services exist in many areas and there is almost certainly an individual practitioner within travelling distance of your home.Self-help groups have branches in most part of the country. Counselling is about trust - so it is important that you feel comfortable with a counsellor.The more open you can be,the more you gain from the experience.Shop around if you can and see which counsellor / practitioner is the right one for you

Crab Lice: Pubic lice.Infest the pubic hair and are usually transfered by sexual contact

Cracked Nipples: During breast feeding, the skin around the nipples is exposed to milk and vigrous sucking, both of which can damage the skin. Prevention is the best approach, the nipples should be gently dabbed clean after each feed and a baby who is properly latched on will not need to suck hard to feed well.Applying a drop of baby lotoin to your breast pad can also help.If the nipples do become cracked, it's important to get advice on positioning the baby correctly on the breast and taking her off.This is best done by pushing gently on the baby's chin to break the airtight seal between the baby's mounth and the nipple.Treatment for cracked nipples with antibiotics must be prompt,since the nipples are vulnerable to infections

Cradle Cap: Scaly brown or yellowish-coloured rash like dandruff, that often forms on the scalps of babies up to the age of three.Harmless, but if accompanied by red,scaly areas elsewhere on baby's body - may be Seborrhoeic Eczema

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD): Is an extremely rare condition in which brain tissue is progressively destroyed by an unusual infectious agent.A general decline in all areas of mental and physical ability leads ultimately to death.CJD affects about one person in a million each year worldwide

Cause: CJD is caused by an infectious agent known as a PRION - which replicates in the brain and causes brain damage.Once type of CJD,accounting for 15 in 100 cases,has been found to run in families.Most people who develop this form of CJD are over age 50.Usually the source of the infection is unknown.In about 1 in 20 affected people it can be traced to previous treatment with products derived from human tissue.Before the use of artificial growth hormone to treat growth disorders,one source of infection was human growth hormone injections.In the mid 1990's a new rare variant of CJD that affects younger people was discovered in the UK.This form of disease is believed to be linked with eating contaminated meat from cattle with a disease called Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).It is possible that this form of the disease might be passed from pregnant mother to her unborn baby

Symptoms: 1. It is thought that CJD is present from between 2 and 15 years before symptoms start to appear.Early symptoms develop gradually and may include 2.depression 3. poor memory 4. unsteadiness and poor coordination 5. other symptoms develop as the condition progresses and include sudden muscle contractions 6.seizures 7. weakness or paralysis on one side of the body 8. progressive dementia 9. impaired vision 10. eventually an affected person may become unable to move and talk.People with late-stage CJD who are confinded to bed are also prone to serious lung infections

Treatment: CJD is usually diagnosed from the symptoms.Tests performed on the tonsils and appendix may confirm the presence of the PRIONS associated with the new variant form of CJD.Other tests are - magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to exclude other treatable causes.Brain biopsy,during which a small piece of tissue is surgically removed for microscopic examination.CJD cannot be cured,but drugs can relieve some of the symptoms.Symptoms of depression may be treated with antidepressant drugs.Muscle contractions may be controlled by muscle relaxants.The disorder is usually fatal within 3 years

Crohn's Disease: Regional ileitis.Condition in which the lower part of the Small Bowel becomes inflammed.Crohn's disease is a rare long-term inflammatory disease that can affect any part of the digestive tract,especially the ileum (part o the small intestine0.Diarrhoea,pain and fever and loss of weight are common symptoms.The onset of Crohn's disease is most common between the ages of 15 and 30 and the problem sometimes runs in families,suggesting that there may be a genetic component.Smoking is a risk factor

Symptoms: The symptoms of Crohn's disease vary among individuals.The disorder usaully recurs at intervals throughout life, typically waxing and waning.Episodes of the disease may be severe,lasting weeks or several months,before settling down to periods where there are mild symptoms at all.The symptoms include diarrhoea,abdominal pain, fever,weight loss,a general feeling of malaise.If the colon is affected,symptoms also include diarrhoea,often containming blood & bloody discharge from the anus.About 1 in 10 people also develops other disorders that are associated with Crohn's disease,including a formof arthritis known as ankylosing spondylitis,kidney stones,gallstones and a classical rash known as erythema nodosum

Treatment: Mild attack of Crohn's disease may be treated with antidiarrhoeal drugs and painkillers.For an acute attack,your doctor may prescribe oral corticosteroids.As soon as symptoms subside,the dosage will be reduced to avoid the risk of side effects.If your symptoms are very severe,you may need hospital treatment with intravenous corticosteriods.To avoid the risk of side effects,the dosage will be reduced as soon as symptoms subside.In all cases,once the dosage of corticoseriods has been reduced,your doctor may recommend oral sulphasalazine or mesalamine to prevent recurrent attacks.An immunosuppressant drug,such as azathioprine, is an option.You may need dietary supplements such as vitamins to counteract malabsorption.During severe attacks,nutrients may have to be given intravenously. Crohn's disease is a recurring disorder.Most affected people learn to live reasonably normal lives,but 7 in 10 people eventually need surgery

Complications and repeated surgery can occasionally reduce life expectancy.Crohn's disease may slightly increase the risk of colorectal cancer Crohn's disease sometimes leads to complications that may include and anal abscess,which may develop into an anal fistual opening on to the skin.Intestinal obstruction caused by thickening of the intestinal walls is a fairly common complication of Crohn's disease.Damage to the small intestine may prevent the absorption of nutrients and thus lead to malabsorption with anaemia and vitamin deficiencies.Inflammation of the colon over a long period of time may also be associated with an increased risk of developing colorectal cancer and your doctor may advise regular check-ups that include colonoscopy

Croup: Infectious Childhood Viral or Bacterial Disease affecting the upper Respiratory Tract

Cushing's Syndrome: A rare condition.A collection of symptoms produced by an excess of glucocorticiods - one of the hormones secreted by the adrenal glands

Cyanosis: Blueness of the skin e.g . finger or lips - due to lack of Oxygen in the blood

Cynophobia: Fear of dogs

Cyst: An abnormal cavity, lined with tissue and containing fluid or semi-fluid substance.Occur as lump in body

Cystic Fibrosis: Also known as Fibrocystic disease of the Pancreas or Mucoviscidosis.It is a rare disease that is present at birth and inherited from both parents.If the mother and father are healthy,but each carries one defective gene for cystic fibrosis,each child conceived has a 25% chance of inheriting two defective genes and being born with the disease.Cystic firbrosis casues several glands in body to be defective,particularly the glands in the lining of the bronchial tubes.Instead of producing the normal thin mucus,the bronchial glands produce a thick sticky phlegm that creates blockages in the air passages and this in turn leads to lung infections.When small parts of the lungs collapse pneumonia results.This is a common recurrent infection in cystic fibrosis sufferers In cystic fibrosis,the pancreas fails to produce certain enzymes that are vital to digestion.These enzymes break down food so that it can be absorbed easily by the body.When these enzymes are missing food is poorly digested,which leads to diarrhoea and foul-smelling stools.Because the body does not absorb many of the nutrients that are essential to good health the child with cystic fibrosis tends to be small,unverweight and fails to thrive.Bouts of diarrhoea may alternate with constipation that can actually block the intestine.Parents with an affected child who are planning a futher pregnancy are offered genetic counselling

Symptoms: 1. Recurrent chest infection with a cough and some breathing difficulty 2. Diarrhoea,alternating with constipation 3. Greasy and foul-smelling bowel motions 4. Failure to thrive 5. swollen abdomen and wated limbs

Treatment: There is NO CURE for Cystic fibrosis,but early detection of the condition lessens the chance of permanent damage to the lungs.Simple tests on the blood or stools of a newborn baby can be carried out,but the definitive test for cystic fibrosis is a sweat test becasue there is an increased salt level in the sweat of sufferers.This will be done on all brothers and sisters of a child with cystic fibrosis,or if a baby has recurrent bouts of pneumonia or fails to thrive.The tests are carried out when the baby is about 3 months of age.Respiratory infections are treated with antibiotics - sometimes a spray form is used for speedy inhalation.Other treatments include inhaliang enzymes to help dissolve lung secretions,or a heart-lung transplant.The gene for cystic fibrosis has been identified and gene therapy will almost certainly be a future option.A child with cystic fibrosos has to have a special low-fat diet,with vitamin supplements and enzyme replacements,which can be taken by mouth.Physiotherapy and breathing exerxises must be doen daily to loosen and drain mucus from the lungs.Exposure to moist air and a cold steam vaporizeer can also help the lungs

Cystistis: Inflammation of the lining of the bladder

Cystocoele: A prolapse where the bladder - drops into the front of the vaginal wall

Cytology: The study of Cells for use in diagnosing disease

Cytomegalo Virus Infection: Also known as Salivary Gland Virus Disease

info source:

South African Family Medical Adviser

Family Health Guide & The Baby & Child Health Care Handbook - Dr.Miriam Stoppard